Crime and Individual Choice Essay

Crime is a common phenomenon. Huge investments of any government go towards the containment and apprehension of crime offenders. The more crime acquires various forms and becomes prevalent, the more studies and theories are brought out to analyze the causes and motivations. A look at Australia in the recent past indicates public outcry over increased incidences of crime, although incidences of organized crime are becoming rare, the same cannot be said of petty thefts. Criminologists have over the years stepped up their efforts in examining the motivations of crime. This is an issue that sparks controversy as some sociologists blame it on the society, pointing out that it is the prevalent circumstances in the society that are behind crime. In the light of this row, this paper maintains that crime is as a result of individual choices rather that the prevalent social circumstances. A study of the possible causes of crime is core to understanding crime, the information generated is crucial as afar as government’s response and approaches to fighting crime is concerned. A dearth of information on such a common problem means that law enforcement agencies spend valuable resources and time on addressing the symptoms rather than the causes. It is this fact that motivates criminologists to dig out the real causes of crime. Economists traditionally have not been involved in the analysis of crime, the issue of causes and prevention was seen as being outside the realm of economics. It was seen as a preserve of sociologists and criminologists. This however changed in the late 1960s when economists brought in an argument that represented a radical paradigm shift from afore recognized sociological and criminological theories. They deviated from the societal foundations of the motivation of crime to a more individualized approach. A good theory of crime according to Becker (1968) has to â€Å"dispense with special theories of anomie, psychological inadequacies or inheritance of special traits and simply extend the economist’s usual analysis of choice. † The economic theory of crime focuses on the aspect of an individual’s rational choice as the key motivation behind crime. This is a theory that is based on the assumption that each and every individual engages in crime in their bid to increase their utility. Crime should be regarded as a venture; it is an enterprise which an individual engages in with an intention of gaining something just like in business. This hence means that any one can become a criminal, there is no particular group that is inherently criminal, it is just that people tend to move in and out of crime when there is an opportunity and there are ample conditions for a crime. Just like in business ventures, a potential criminal takes time to plan his activities and also makes decision in regard to the amount of time to be appropriated in each activity so as to maximize the gains. In making a decision of whether or not to engage in crime, an individual takes into account all the possible benefits and also the likely costs. People engage in criminal activities not because they have some natural or psychological motivations but because they have amply taken into consideration the perceived benefits and costs. This means that a certain crime will not be committed if the costs exceed the benefits. In such a case hence it is possible to see a particular crime being the most preferred in comparison to another due to the net benefits associated with that crime. Indeed crime is driven by the resultant benefits and decreased if the punishment meted out is harsh in comparison to the crime. According to the economic theory, â€Å"an increase in the probability and/or severity of punishment (representing costs of criminal behavior) will reduce the potential criminal’s participation in illegitimate activities. † (Philip & Cameron) This is what motivates the deterrence theory. It is important to point out that the issue of costs and benefits must be carefully analyzed, the cost does not only revolve around the aspect of incarceration but also encompasses the social cost, this applies even to the perceived benefits. A rational individual wishing to engage in crime hence puts into consideration all these factors and weighs his options, his decision and choice is influenced by the resultant weight, either towards the benefits or towards the costs. If the costs outweigh the benefits, the individuals is unlikely to engage in the crime; the vice versa is also true (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990). The Rational Choice Theory, on which the economics theory is founded, is derived from the utilitarian belief that indeed human beings are rational; their decisions are independently influenced by the factors of costs and benefits. In the propagation of this theory, several assumptions are made. There is the assumption that people are driven by utility; they are motivated by the urge to increase their happiness which mostly is in terms of wealth. they also are supposed to have goals and they pick the choice that enables them to accomplish such goals. The theory of rational choice can be traced to the early works of Cesare Beccaria who set out to explain crime using the enlightment ideas. According to Cessare, â€Å"people want to experience pleasure and avoid pain, and while criminal acts can bring pleasure of various sorts, possible punishment can bring pain. † (Laura, 2007, 231) This is a theory that has immensely been used in the justice system; it is based on the thinking that for crime to be prevented, punishment must outweigh the benefits of the crime. This is because if the pain is less than the benefits, then there is no motivation to quit crime. Bentham also was in agreement over the aspect of crime boiling down to individual choice, and influenced by the perceived benefits. He noted that â€Å"the profit of the crime is the force which urges a man to delinquency. The pain of the punishment is the force employed to restrain him from it. If the first of these forces is greater, the crime will be committed; if the second, the crime will not be committed. † (Cited in Maurice, 1993, 311) An important aspect that has to be looked at is why some people or groups show a higher prevalence to crime. Indeed, people can not have a similar response to crime. This is so as people have individual differences that affect their preferences. There are those that may prefer honesty, have a higher income and hence value their reputation. The perceived gains and costs are also regarded differently. The prospects of experiencing a certain level of pain might be motivating enough to some people to avoid crime. The decision to engage in one sort of crime and avoid others also follows a similar pattern. It is influenced by opportunity, available information, costs and benefits (Loftin, & McDowell, 1982). The view that crime is influenced by rational individual choices has most often than not been put into disrepute by a flurry of other available studies done on the subject. A majority of the existing studies are influenced by the social conditions and environment rather than the individual choice. One of the existing schools of thought that points at the relationship between social factors and crime is the positivist school of thought. According to this thinking, crime and criminality is influence by internal and external factors that are beyond the control of an individual. The answer to criminality lies in the biological, psychological and social foundations. Those that propagate the thinking that crime can be explained by physiological factors do it on the basis that those individuals that have a higher affinity towards crime tend to have some specific physiological traits. This thinking influenced the thought that crime is a natural trait and hence cannot be individually controlled. Some individuals are born criminals and they cannot change this. It is this argument of inherent criminality that was used to fuel the arguments behind the abolishment of capital punishment, on the basis that criminals were being punished for things they had no control on. There is also the thinking that crime can be closely linked to neuroticism and psychotism. In this, crime is seen as a mental disease where the criminal develops a psychotic compulsion to engage in crime. The prevalent theory that challenges the aspect of individual choice in crime is the sociological positivism. This is a theory that traces crime to societal factors such as poverty, subcultures and lack of education. The social disorganization theory for example has been able to establish a positive link between the collapse of important social institutions and crime. The society is held together by institutions such as religion and also the justice system. The collapse of these core institutions contributes to an increase in crime. Poverty and lack of economic development fuels an increase in crime. As the theory claims, places that are characterized by neighborhoods with high population and failed social structure record high instances of crime compared to others. Poverty leads to social disorder and is characterized by physical evidences of collapsed buildings and deteriorating neighborhoods. This leads to what has been referred to as the deterioration concentration effects. Such neighborhoods attract crime (Maurice, 1993). It is important to observe that social factors can indeed fuel crime. There exist immense studies that have focused on crime and ethnicity and have come to conclude that there are certain social conditions that influence such communities to commit crime. Poverty has been pointed out as one of the leading factor, where people resort to crime as a means of acquiring wealth and prosperity. This however does not mean that the role of an individual in making such a choice diminishes. People are influenced by their own rational choice to engage in crime, in consideration of the existing benefits and costs of such a crime, should the cost override the benefits; then crime is reduced. References Maurice P. F. (1993) The psychology of crime: a social science textbook. Cambridge University Press. Laura L. F. (2007) Encyclopedia of juvenile violence. Greenwood Publishing Group. Brantingham, P. J. & Brantingham, P. L. (1991). Environmental criminology. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Gottfredson, M. , T. Hirschi (1990). A General Theory of Crime. Stanford University Press. Becker, G. S. (1968) Crime and punishment: an economic approach. Journal of Political Economy, Loftin, C. and McDowell, D. (1982) The police, crime and economic theory. American. Sociological Review Philip M. B & Cameron M. Crime, punishment and deterrence in Australia: A further empirical investigation. International Journal of Social Economics retrieved on April 28, 2009 from http://www. uq. edu. au/~ecpbodma/ijse. pdf.

Nonverbal Communication Essay

Among the many different ways that we as human beings communicate with one another, nonverbal communication is one of the most common yet most unnoticed form of communication. Also described as body language, nonverbal communication can be the slightest facial expression or just the certain position of your body in a conversation. Without even realizing it, your body language can show feelings of happiness, awkwardness, nervousness and much more. Furthermore, the study of the movement, facial expressions and posture is called kinesics. Having the skill to understand kinesics is a fundamental tool in all aspects of life. Being able to read other’s body language can help you in a number of situations. By learning more about kinetics, you can open your eyes to a whole new way of reading others as well as presenting yourself appropriately for a given situation. In order to utilize any nonverbal communication skills effectively, you must first be familiar with what it exactly means as well as to recognize what each motion or signal symbolizes. These signals could be anything from the twitch of a nose, to a gaze of the eyes or just the fiddling of hair. To be completely knowledgeable about studying one’s actions, you must learn the deeper meaning behind each gesture. That’s not to say, however, that each signal means the same for everyone in every situation. Noticing that your spouse is not making eye contact with you does not necessarily signify that she or she is telling a lie, although that may be a possibility. Generalizations such as avoiding eye contact or fidgeting to indicate that a person is lying are simply what many studies have shown to be more than likely true in a number of cases. There is much debate as to whether or not non-verbal communication skills should be taught as an aid for medical uses. Of course those in professions such as the psychiatric field, gain a trained eye to notice certain feelings of their patients, but there is question about if the skill is even a teachable subject. A reason being because there doesn’t seem to be any real answer or strict guideline to every action or expression, especially when it comes to discussing the differences between cultures. Yourself and certain gestures that you make can be considered as strange or even insulting. Take eye contact for example. Most people who have grown up in not only the United States, but most Western cultures, use eye contact in a positive way. When making eye contact with someone who you are speaking with, it shows that you are listening and paying close attention to what they are saying. Also, it shows a sense of respect, where the elder in a situation prefers the child to be looking them in the eye while being scolded, showing that they are understanding and paying attention to a lecture. On the other hand, there are negative connotations regarding eye contact when it is being avoided. Usually when someone is not looking you in the eye while speaking to you, it gives a sense that the person is not being truthful. This scenario takes a whole three-hundred-sixty degree change in the minds of other cultures. For example, some Caribbean cultures find eye contact to be offensive. They believe that when a child is being scolded, they should not make eye contact. It is a sign of disrespect, as the child is expected to lower their eyes and show complete remorse. Aside from eye contact, there is a whole spectrum of differences in common gestures between cultures. In many cases, Americans especially fail to understand that the world is very different from the United States. In America, the â€Å"Rock On† symbol is made by closing a fist while leaving only the index and pinky finger extended. Commonly used when listening to music or maybe simply during an exciting situation. On the other hand, traveling to Italy and preforming this hand gesture is not only insulting, but is considered an offense. In Italy, it is a sign that when given by a man to another man symbolizes that â€Å"other men are in relations with his wife†, which is obviously a huge sign of disrespect as well as a personal insult. There are many ways in which cultures differ when it comes to body language, but there are a few universal expressions that are the same across the board. British scientist, Charles Darwin, was the first to recognize the six basic facial expressions as being the same all over the world. They are happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise, and anger. Darwin first made these claims in his book titled The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin’s idea about the six facial gestures was later put together  in a study in the 1960’s by Paul Ekman. Ekman was a psychiatrist expert in facial expressions and decided to test the validity of Darwin’s theory. He found that all men, even those from isolated tribes, were able to recognize all six expressions for what they were, proving Darwin correct. http://westsidetoastmasters.com/resources/book_of_body_language/chap5.html http://www.businessballs.com/body-language.htm#body-language-different-cultures http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/darwin_charles.shtml Not only is it important to understand what messages you body language sends while you are in other cultures, but it may be even more important to learn how to carry and present yourself in the workplace. Knowing what sends off confident and powerful signals to your boss or employees can be a key factor in your performance and enables others to take you seriously. It could even be what makes or breaks you being accepted for a position you are applying for. As everyone knows, first impressions are incredibly strong and lasting. Before an interview is begun, there is almost always a handshake with the interviewer. Even before that, theres the moment that you are walking up to that person and your strut and presence or lack of fidgeting approaching the handshake sends signals before you can even present your credentials. They will note if you carry yourself confidently and especially if your handshake is firm or limp. When asked what percentage of communication comes from actual words and speaking, most would think it’s a high percentage. In actuality, only a surprising 7% of communication is derived from words. That leaves 38% to vocal details such as the tone, speed, or volume while speaking. So interestingly enough, 55% of communication is the reading and sending of body language signals. Now the signals that you send may give away what your feeling, or they could be a complete misrepresentation. This is why it is in your best interest to make note of how others are seeing you, so you can make any necessary changes to your behavior. This is obviously easier said  than done, especially if you are among those who have always been the nervous type and tend to perspire or fidget. Fortunately, knowing what your faults are and having the knowledge to correct them can result in making a complete change and eventually landing that promotion that you have sought after for so long. First, understanding the importance of eye contact in crucial. One step of effectively making this connection with an audience is knowing the material you are presenting. If you are constantly referring back to your powerpoint or notes, your obviously not making eye contact which in turn creates a distance that is imperative to avoid. Another tactic is to rid of all objects that could count as a barrier. Standing behind a podium or folder or even crossing your arms will create the distance between you and your audience, and may ultimately end up with a performance that was not your best. Along with making eye contact, it is a good idea to appear animated. Using hand gestures or maybe even moving about the room will create interest which in turn leaves a great impression on the audience.

Unemployment and Crime in the Society Research Proposal

Unemployment and Crime in the Society - Research Proposal Example Unemployed persons who engage in criminal activities represent an individual matter that should not be associated with unemployment per se. Unemployed people are ready and willing to take work anytime if it is offered to them. They are ready to work and earn a decent living, but the challenge is the scarcity of job opportunities to absorb all the employment. The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between crime and unemployment in the society. The investigation will involve the convicts of various crimes in society in a selected region in U.K. between the 1990 and 2013. The investigation will be conducted using questionnaires, observations, and interviews, and will target about two hundred respondents and gather details regarding the cause of conviction, respondents’ occupation prior to prior to conviction and the duration of imprisonment. The outcome of the investigation will be used to establish the extent to which unemployment has contributed to the crimes in t he society and the effect of law in deterring crimes in the society. Even though many people associate unemployment with criminal activities, the current increase in crime rate in the society is as a result of a failure of the security structures to deal with offenders and redress justice for the victims of crimes. Crimes are unlawful conducts stipulated by the state in the constitution of the country. The law specifies what is unlawful and the consequences of engaging in the unlawful conducts. There are many arguments that associated increase in the rate of unemployment with increasing rate of crimes in the society. Some researchers have linked poverty and unemployment of the youth to increasing criminal activities, and they argue that if the government does come up with strategies to curb the increasing poverty due to unemployment the society will be chaotic and uncontrollable.

Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 113

Summary - Essay Example ration "meeting" construes from an Algonquian Indian word "pau wau," which means "he dreams." In this definition, "pau wau" had an individual, deferential, religious tremendousness. Separating this definition, the contemporary gathering is intrigued by the all inclusive community and is a get together arranged social event. The thought of meeting began around the tribes who possessed the Great Plains from the southern prairies of Canada to the less demanding fields of Texas. In the safeguarding time, various Plains tribes formed between tribal arrangements. These unions allowed tribal-specific tunes, moves, and capacities to be exchanged. This is the evident station all around todays "intertribal meeting." The chief honest to goodness intertribal chamber in Oklahoma was the Ponca Powwow. It began in northern Indian Territory around 1879. Indian Territory was genuinely between tribal as about 67 tribes have been positively associated with territories that became Oklahoma. Into the early 1900s the Plains Indians lifestyles were rapidly deteriorating as the social orders spirits had been broken. All around World War I, American Indians selected in the military, and parts of Indian tribes that were once mortal enemies struggled side by side to shield the United States. At their homecoming most veterans laid their tribal complexities aside to hit the move floor with their partners to an ordinary drumbeat. The American flag, once a picture of the destruction of Indian lives, got an alternate status at twentieth century Indian social occasions. In a renaissance of outdated warrior social requests, celebrations began to reemerge to appreciation veterans as breakthrough warriors. Tribal seniors who reviewed specific tribal gathering helped their taking in of running capacities for Indian servicemen. Accordingly, new routines, joined with matured traditions, made to fit the times. By 1920 the Plains tribes of southwestern Oklahoma held their first between tribal committee

Supply Chain Management Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5500 words

Supply Chain Management - Coursework Example This paper using qualitative research method analyses the effectiveness of supply chain management on the basis of the activities and capabilities that the organizations seek from their supply chain partners. The research basically supports the argument that the effective supply chain management is dependent upon the effective operational and relational competencies of the supply chain partners. However it is also advocated that collaborative supply chain management challenges the traditional supplier-customer arrangements and changes taking place in the respective organizations largely depend on the correlation of competency of the supply chain partners and the long term relationship within the supply chain. Recommendations for the future studies are also made. A supply chain consists of all activities associated with the flow and transformation of goods and services from the raw material stage through to the end user as well as the associated information flows. Supply chain is made up of many interrelated organizations starting with raw material suppliers and including parts and components suppliers, subassembly suppliers, the product or service producer, the distribution channels, and ending with the end-use customer. 1.1 Supply Chain Management The focus of supply chain management is on managing the flow of goods and services and information through the supply chain in order to attain the level of synchronization that will make the supply chain more responsive to the customer needs and at the same time lowering the costs. Traditionally each segment of the supply chain was managed as a separate entity focused only on its goals. However in the present day competitive business environment the ability of a company to enhance its competitive strength is largely determined by the combined capabilities of all of its supply chain members. The

Argument final paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Argument final - Research Paper Example ilable medical remedies, and so many patients suffering from these diseases are made to endure severe and chronic pain, vomiting, difficulty in breathing, and other similar discomforts. They are often also made to endure such symptoms for days and even months before they eventually die. In the interim, they often reach the point of wanting to end their suffering and pain by ending their life. Lacking the strength and the means to end it, these patients turn to their physicians to assist them in ending their life. But legalizing physician-assisted suicide (PAS) is a dangerous step which is very much against the basic principles of the medical practice. With such a premise, this paper shall discuss and support the thesis that physician-assisted suicide should not be made legal. An important consideration in the assisted suicide discussion is the fact that committing it is against the basic principle of non-maleficence or of not doing any harm to one’s patient. The Hippocratic Oath which serves as the basic ethical mandate of the medical practice expressly prohibits physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia (Finlay, 2005). This oath declares that a physician should not â€Å"administer a poison to anybody when asked to do so, nor will [the physician] suggest such a course† (as cited by Demy and Stewart, 1998, p. 249). In the time of Hippocrates, assisted suicide and euthanasia were very much against the principles of medicine. In the current context however, assisted suicide and euthanasia are ideas which are new and different from the concepts of medicine and care (Walker, 2001). Those who support physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia also have different ideas on what it is to be a physician and what the moral boundaries of the practice a re. â€Å"It is also telling that the current public interest in PAS comes at a time when the palliative powers of American medicine are greater than they have ever been in the past† (Walker, 2001, p. 27). All in all,

Marketing Proposal for Daimler Chrysler Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marketing Proposal for Daimler Chrysler - Essay Example Based on Daimler Chrysler dataset it is been found out that there was a declined car market trend from 1990 to 2004. In 1990 there was a value of 23.9 percent while in 2004 there was only 18.3 percent. This gives a wake-up call to the companies under Daimler Chrysler. They checked the importance of styling and prestigious promotion to the market. And they find a way on how to attract yuppies crowds. They made a new exciting designed car without looking the shortage of capital. The objective & goal of this research is to determine there is a significant difference between the Consider Buying Dodge Viper and selected variables such as: Faddish; Carefree; Paranoid; Conscientious; Irresponsible; Positive outlook; Pro-active; Responsible parenting; and Patriot/ Loyalty, with Daimler Chrysler Informational Data. Daimler Chrysler dataset has a declined car market trend from 1990 to 2004. In 1990 there was the value of 23.9 percent while in 2004 there was only 18.3 percent. This gives a wake-up call to the companies under Daimler Chrysler. They checked the importance of styling and prestigious promotion to the market. And they find a way on how to attract yuppies crowds. They made a new exciting designed car without looking the shortage of capital. There were 400 rows and 31 columns in the informational data. The researcher made clusters based on his common sense. These clusters were categories based on Faddish; Carefree; Paranoid; Conscientious; Irresponsible; Positive outlook; Pro-active; Responsible parenting; and Patriot/ Loyalty. Sample Size: Clustering the dataset through commons sense, then after clustering the researcher calculated the mean of every cluster, the results will be used in multiple regression for determination of the predictor's elasticity. This section presents the analysis of the data on the study to find out if there a significant difference between the Consider Buying Dodge Viper and selected variables.